Disability and Violence - In Focus: Crime and Justice Statistics

This report presents information collected from the Australian Bureau of Statistics’ (ABS) 2016 Personal Safety Survey (PSS) and supplementary data drawn from a number of other ABS data sources about experiences, characteristics and outcomes of violence, cohabiting partner violence and emotional abuse, sexual harassment and stalking for persons living with disability.

The 2016 PSS found that living with disability or a long-term health condition raised the likelihood of experiencing various types of violence for women but not for men. These include physical violence by any perpetrator, violence by a cohabiting partner (physical and/or sexual), emotional abuse by a cohabiting partner, sexual harassment by any perpetrator, and stalking by any perpetrator.

The difference was greatest for violence by a cohabiting partner (physical and/or sexual), where women with disability were twice as likely to experience violence by a cohabiting partner as women without disability.

The rate of sexual violence was similar for women with and without disability or a long-term health condition.

For men, disability or a long-term health condition raised the risk of experiencing stalking only (2.5% compared with 1.4%).

The type and severity of disability were also found to impact on the likelihood of victimisation. Both women and men with intellectual/psychological disability were more likely than those with physical disability to experience violence (physical and/or sexual) and emotional abuse by a cohabiting partner, however the difference was more pronounced for women.

The PSS also found that women living with intellectual/psychological disability were more likely to experience cohabiting partner violence (physical and/or sexual) compared with women living with physical disability.

Persons living with disability or a long-term health condition were also more likely to have experienced abuse by an adult before the age of 15. The 2016 PSS found that 20% of adults with disability or a long-term health condition experienced physical and/or sexual abuse before the age of 15, compared with 11% of adults without disability or a long-term health condition.

The 2016 PSS found that for persons living with disability or a long-term health condition the likelihood of experiencing violence (physical and/or sexual) was higher for the following socio-demographic groups:

• Persons aged 18 to 24 years of age (17%) and 25 to 34 years of age (13%) compared with those aged 35 years and above (all below 10%)
• Persons belonging to the lowest, second, and third quintiles of socio-economic disadvantage (6.4%, 6.5% and 6.8% respectively) compared with those belonging to the highest (3.5%)
• Persons born in Australia or overseas in a main English-speaking country (6.2%) compared with those born overseas in a non-main English-speaking country (3.8%)

The 2014 General Social Survey also found that of persons living with disability or a long-term health condition, those who identified as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or other were more likely to experience physical and/or threatened violence (19%) compared with those who identified as heterosexual (8.2%).

The 2018 Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers (SDAC) found that:

• 18% or 4.4 million people were living with disability and a further 22% (5.5 million) had a long-term health condition but no disability
• The prevalence of disability increased with age, with 12% of people aged 64 years and under and 50% of people aged 65 years and over living with disability
• The prevalence of disability was similar for males and females (both 18%)
• 187,800 Australians living with disability were residing in cared accommodation in 2018, including hospitals, nursing homes, aged care hostels, and other cared accommodation.

1. For more information on the terms used, refer to the Glossary of the Survey of Disability, Ageing, and Carers publication.
2. Includes those who have a core activity limitation and/or a schooling or employment restriction, and those who do not have a specific restriction or limitation.

The following section provides information about the number of persons living with disability or a long-term health condition in Australia who experienced different types of violence in 2016.

For definitions of the various types of violence refer to the Personal Safety Survey Glossary.

In 2016, of persons living with disability or a long-term health condition:

• 5.7% experienced physical and/or sexual violence (330,400), including 5.9% of women and 5.6% of men
• 5.0% experienced physical violence (288,700), including 4.8% of women and 5.1% of men
• 1.4% experienced sexual violence (78,700), including 2.2% of women and 0.7%* of men
• 3.1% experienced stalking (180,200), including 3.7% of women and 2.5% of men
• 15% experienced sexual harassment (859,500), including 19% of women and 10% of men

The term cohabiting partner in the PSS is used to describe a person the respondent lives with, or lived with at some point in a married or de facto relationship. This may also be described as a partner.

In 2016, of persons living with disability or a long-term health condition:

• 1.8% experienced physical and/or sexual violence by a cohabiting partner (102,300), including 2.5% of women and 1.1%* of men
• 5.6% experienced emotional abuse by a cohabiting partner (322,300), including 6.3% of women and 4.7% of men

The following section examines whether there was a statistically significant change in the prevalence of violence between 2012 and 2016 for persons living with disability or a long-term health condition.

The proportion of persons with disability or a long-term health condition who experienced physical violence decreased from 6.9% in 2012 to 5.0% in 2016. The decrease was statistically significant for men (declining from 8.9% in 2012 to 5.1% in 2016), but not for women (5.0% in 2012 and 4.8% in 2016). Both findings are reflective of the results for the general male and female population.

The proportion of persons with disability or a long-term health condition who experienced sexual violence remained stable at 1.3% in 2012 and 1.4% in 2016. The rate was stable for both men (0.8%* in 2012 and 0.7%* in 2016), and women (1.7% in 2012 and 2.2% in 2016). This differed to the result for the general female population, where there was an increase in the prevalence of sexual violence from 1.2% in 2012 to 1.8% in 2016.

The proportion of persons with disability or a long-term health condition who experienced stalking decreased from 4.6% in 2012 to 3.1% in 2016. The decrease was statistically significant for women (declining from 5.5% in 2012 to 3.7% in 2016), but not for men (3.7% in 2012 and 2.5% in 2016). Both findings are reflective of the results for the general male and female population.

The proportion of persons with disability or a long-term health condition who experienced sexual harassment increased from 12% in 2012 to 15% in 2016. The increase was not statistically significant when the data was disaggregated by sex. The prevalence rate of sexual harassment for men was 7.7% in 2012 and 10% in 2016, while the rate for women was 17% in 2012 and 19% in 2016. The increase in the prevalence rate of sexual harassment between 2012 and 2016 for persons with disability or a long-term health condition was reflective of the results for the general population.

The proportion of persons with disability or a long-term health condition who experienced violence by a cohabiting partner increased from 1.2% in 2012 to 1.8% in 2016. The increase was not statistically significant when the data was disaggregated by sex. The prevalence rate of violence by a cohabiting partner for men was 0.5%* in 2012 and 1.1%* in 2016, while the rate for women was 1.9% in 2012 and 2.5% in 2016. The increase in the prevalence rate of cohabiting partner violence between 2012 and 2016 for persons with disability or a long-term health condition was not reflective of the results for the general population, where there was no statistically significant change over the same time period.

The proportion of persons with disability or a long-term health condition who experienced emotional abuse by a cohabiting partner increased from 4.5% in 2012 to 5.6% in 2016. The increase was statistically significant for men (increasing from 2.8% in 2012 to 4.7% in 2016), but not for women (6.1% in 2012 and 6.3% in 2016). Both findings are reflective of the results for the general male and female population.

This section compares differences in the prevalence of violence by disability type and disability severity for women and men.

Women with intellectual/psychological disability were more likely than women with physical disability to experience the following types of violence in 2016:

• Physical and/or sexual violence by any perpetrator (15% compared with 5.2%)
• Cohabiting partner violence (6.5% compared with 2.2%)
• Cohabiting partner emotional abuse (12% compared with 5.7%)

Men with intellectual/psychological disability were more likely than men with physical disability to experience the following types of violence in 2016:

• Physical and/or sexual violence by any perpetrator (12% compared with 5.8%)
• Cohabiting partner emotional abuse (6.8% compared with 4.7%)

Women with profound/severe core activity limitation were more likely than women with mild core activity limitation to experience the following types of violence in 2016:

• Physical and/or sexual violence by any perpetrator (8.3% compared with 4.1%)
• Cohabiting partner emotional abuse (7.3% compared with 5.5%)

Equivalent data for men was not of sufficient quality to undertake reliable analysis due to higher relative standard error values.

In 2016, persons living with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely to experience the following types of violence compared with persons without disability or a long-term health condition:

• Physical and/or sexual violence by a cohabiting partner (1.8% compared with 1.0%)
• Emotional abuse by a cohabiting partner (5.6% compared with 4.0%)
• Sexual harassment (15% compared with 13%)
• Stalking (3.1% compared with 2.1%)

The differences in violence prevalence rates between persons with and without disability or a long-term health condition were more pronounced for women than for men.

In 2016, women with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than women without disability or a long-term health condition to experience:

• Physical and/or sexual violence by any perpetrator (5.9% compared with 4.3%)
• Physical violence (4.8% compared with 2.9%)
• Sexual harassment (19% compared with 17%)
• Stalking (3.7% compared with 2.7%)

The proportion of women who experienced sexual violence in 2016 was similar for both women with and without disability or a long-term health condition.

In 2016, women with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than women without disability or a long-term health condition to experience:

• Physical and/or sexual violence by a cohabiting partner (2.5% compared with 1.3%)
• Emotional abuse by a cohabiting partner (6.3% compared with 4.1%)

In 2016, men with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than men without disability or a long-term health condition to experience stalking (2.5% compared with 1.4%).

During the same time period, men with disability or a long-term health condition were about as likely as men without disability or a long-term health condition to experience physical and/or sexual violence (5.6% compared with 6.2%) and sexual harassment (10% compared with 8.7%).

In 2016, men with disability or a long-term health condition were about as likely as men without disability or a long-term health condition to experience:

• Physical and/or sexual violence by a cohabiting partner (1.1%* compared with 0.6%*)
• Emotional abuse by a cohabiting partner (4.7% compared with 3.8%)

The PSS collects information about any experiences of abuse (physical and sexual) before the age of 15, perpetrated by an adult. As disability status is determined based on the respondent’s conditions at the time of the survey, it does not necessarily indicate whether the respondent had disability at the time they experienced abuse before the age of 15.

Persons with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely to have experienced abuse by an adult before the age of 15 than persons without disability:

• 20% of persons with disability or a long-term health condition experienced physical and/or sexual abuse before the age of 15, compared with 11% of persons without disability or a long-term health condition
• 12% of persons with disability or a long-term health condition experienced sexual abuse before the age of 15, compared with 5.8% of persons without disability or a long-term health condition
• 13% of persons with disability or a long-term health condition experienced physical abuse before the age of 15, compared with 6.4% of persons without disability or a long-term health condition

This section discusses the socio-demographic characteristics (at the time of survey) of persons with disability or a long-term health condition who experienced violence (physical and/or sexual) in the 12 months prior to interview in 2016. This information may be useful in understanding the profile of persons with disability or a long-term health condition who are more likely to have experienced violence. However, it cannot be used to draw causal conclusions about the relationship between one variable and another.

Young persons living with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely to experience violence (physical and/or sexual) than older persons living with disability or a long-term health condition.  Compared with the overall violence prevalence rate of 5.7% for persons with disability or a long-term health condition:

• Persons aged 18 to 24 years and 25 to 34 years were more likely to have experienced violence in 2016 (17% and 13% respectively)
• Persons aged 55 years and over were less likely to have experienced violence in 2016 (2.3%)

This finding reflects the result for the general population, with younger persons more likely to be victims of violence than older persons. Refer to Personal Safety, Australia, 2016 for further information.

In 2016, women with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than men with disability or a long-term health condition to experience:

• Sexual violence (2.2% compared with 0.7%*)
• Sexual harassment (19% compared with 10%)
• Physical and/or sexual violence by a cohabiting partner (2.5% compared with 1.1%*)
• Emotional abuse by a cohabiting partner (6.3% compared with 4.7%)

The difference for emotional abuse by a cohabiting partner does not reflect the results for the general population, where women and men experienced it at a similar rate (4.8% compared with 4.2%). Furthermore, in the general population:

• Men were more likely than women to experience physical violence in 2016 (5.4% compared with 3.5%), whereas the rate was similar for men and women living with disability or a long-term health condition (5.1% compared with 4.8%)
• Women were more likely than men to experience stalking in 2016 (3.1% compared with 1.7%), whereas the rate was similar for women and men living with disability or a long-term health condition (3.7% compared with 2.5%)

The Index of Relative Socio-Economic Advantage and Disadvantage ranks areas on a continuum from most disadvantaged to most advantaged. Lower quintiles indicate greater levels of disadvantage and a lack of advantage in general compared with higher quintiles.

Persons with disability or a long-term health condition in the lowest quintile were more likely to experience violence (physical and/or sexual) in 2016 than persons with disability or a long-term health condition in the highest quintile (6.4% compared with 3.5%). This differs to the finding in the general population, where men and women in the lowest quintile were about as likely to experience violence in 2016 as men and women in the highest quintile.

The 2014 General Social Survey (GSS) found that persons with disability or a long-term health condition who identified as either gay, lesbian, bisexual, or other sexual orientation were more likely than persons with disability or a long-term health condition who identified as heterosexual to experience physical or threatened violence in 2014-15 (19% compared with 8.2%). This reflects the finding for the general population, where those who identified as either gay, lesbian, bisexual, or other sexual orientation were more likely than those who identified as heterosexual to experience physical or threatened violence over the same time period (16% compared with 7.8%).

The data presented here have been obtained from the 2014-15 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey.

The 2014-15 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey (NATSISS) collected information about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s experiences of physical and threatened violence in the 12 months prior to survey. The survey found that both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men and women living with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely to experience physical or threatened violence than men and women without disability or a long-term health condition:

• 24% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women living with disability or a long-term health condition experienced physical or threatened violence in 2014-15, compared with 15% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women without disability or a long-term health condition
• 25% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men living with disability or a long-term health condition experienced physical or threatened violence in 2014-15, compared with 18% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men without disability or a long-term health condition

The 2016 PSS found that persons with disability or a long-term health condition who were born in Australia or overseas in a main English-speaking country were more likely than persons with disability or a long-term health condition born overseas in a non-main English-speaking country to experience violence (physical and/or sexual) in 2016 (6.2% compared with 3.8%). This reflects the finding for the general population, where those born in Australia or overseas in a main English-speaking country were more likely than those born overseas in a non-main English-speaking country to experience violence over the same time period (5.8% compared with 3.8%).

Note: Overseas main English-speaking countries include Canada, the Republic of Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

Persons with disability or a long-term health condition who experienced violence (physical and/or sexual) in 2016 were more likely to report low levels of life satisfaction than persons with disability or a long-term health condition who did not experience violence.

Of persons with disability or a long-term health condition who experienced violence in 2016, 22% rated their overall life satisfaction as 4 or less (out of 10), compared with 11% of persons with disability or a long-term health condition who did not experience violence.

Of women with disability or a long-term health condition:

• 136,800 experienced physical assault by a male in the last two years
• 71,500 experienced sexual assault by a male in the last two years
• 39,200 experienced physical assault by a female in the last two years

Of men with disability or a long-term health condition:

• 140,100 experienced physical assault by a male in the last two years
• 76,000 experienced physical assault by a female in the last two years

A similar proportion of women with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced the following types of assault knew the perpetrator of the most recent incident:

• Physical assault by a male (91% and 87%)
• Sexual assault by a male (88% and 87%)

Women with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than women without disability or a long-term health condition to know the perpetrator of the most recent incident of physical assault by a female (92% compared with 67%).

A similar proportion of men with and without disability or a long-term health condition knew the perpetrator of the most recent incident of physical assault by a female (88% compared with 92%).

Men with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than men without disability or a long-term health condition to know the perpetrator of the most recent incident of physical assault by a male (50% compared with 30%).

A similar proportion of women with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced the following types of assault experienced the most recent incident in a home location:

• Sexual assault by a male (72% and 62%)
• Physical assault by a female (54% and 48%*)

Women with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than women without disability or a long-term health condition to experience the most recent incident of physical assault by a male in a home location (82% compared with 68%).

A similar proportion of men with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced physical assault by a female experienced their most recent incident in a home location (75% compared with 79%).

Men with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than men without disability or a long-term health condition to experience their most recent incident of physical assault by a male in a home location (29% compared with 12%*).

A similar proportion of women with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced assault perceived that alcohol or another substance contributed to the most recent incident for all types of assault, including:

• Physical assault by a male (46% and 53%)
• Sexual assault by a male (54% and 49%)
• Physical assault by a female (50% and 38%)

A similar proportion of men with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced assault perceived that alcohol or another substance contributed to the most recent incident for both types of assault, including:

• Physical assault by a male (65% and 72%)
• Physical assault by a female (41% and 43%)

A similar proportion of women with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced assault sustained an injury in the most recent incident for the following types of assault:

• Physical assault by a male (52% and 45%)
• Physical assault by a female (47% and 46%*)

A similar proportion of men with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced assault sustained an injury in the most recent incident for both types of assault, including:

• Physical assault by a male (50% and 41%)
• Physical assault by a female (31% and 34%)

A similar proportion of women with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced assault did not report their most recent incident to police for all types of assault, including:

• Physical assault by a male (70% and 72%)
• Sexual assault by a male (91% and 90%)
• Physical assault by a female (70% and 77%)

A similar proportion of men with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced assault did not report their most recent incident to police for both types of assault, including:

• Physical assault by a male (58% and 66%)
• Physical assault by a female (74% and 80%)

A similar proportion of women with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced assault sought advice or support after the most recent incident for the following types of assault:

• Physical assault by a male (66% and 61%)
• Physical assault by a female (64% and 54%)

Women with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than women without disability or a long-term health condition to seek advice or support after the most recent incident of sexual assault by a male (65% compared with 48%).

A similar proportion of men with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced assault sought advice or support after the most recent incident for both types of assault, including:

• Physical assault by a male (49% and 41%)
• Physical assault by a female (29% and 40%)

In 2016, a similar proportion of women with and without disability or a long-term health condition who experienced assault in the last two years experienced anxiety or fear for their personal safety in the 12 months after the most recent incident for the following types of assault:

• Sexual assault by a male (64% and 50%)
• Physical assault by a female (52% and 39%*)

Women with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than women without disability or a long-term health condition to experience anxiety or fear in the 12 months after the most recent incident of physical assault by a male (74% compared with 56%).

In 2016, men with disability or a long-term health condition were more likely than men without disability or a long-term health condition to experience anxiety or fear in the 12 months after the most recent incident of physical assault by a male (40% compared with 23%).

To measure the prevalence of violence for persons with disability in a given population, shorter time frames – usually the last 12 months – should be used.

ABS household surveys collect information about a person’s socio-demographic characteristics, including disability status, at the time of interview. These characteristics are not always static and can change over time. For example, people can move interstate, transition into or out of the labour force, or acquire disability or a long-term health condition. For this reason, a person’s disability status at the time of interview may not be reflective of their status at the time they experienced violence, particularly if the violence occurred a long time ago.

The two main time frames used to present violence prevalence rates in the PSS are the last 12 months and since the age of 15. To understand how disability intersects with violence as a risk factor, analysis should be restricted to recent experiences of violence, usually the last one or two years. To understand how many people with disability or a long-term health condition may require access to support services for past experiences of violence, using a longer timeframe is more appropriate (e.g. since the age of 15 or the last ten years for characteristics of the most recent incident).

The PSS uses a standard set of sixteen questions designed to identify whether a person has disability or a long-term health condition, the type(s) of disability that they have, and the level of severity in terms of core activity restrictions and limitations. Disability prevalence data obtained through the PSS aligns well with other ABS sources of disability prevalence data, including other social and health surveys and the Survey of Disability, Aging, and Carers (SDAC).

Persons living with disability or a long-term health condition comprised one-third of the 2016 PSS fully responding sample (7,086 respondents out of a fully responding sample of 21,242). The large contributing sample of persons with disability or a long-term health condition enables the PSS to produce reliable and robust estimates across the different disability severity classifications for the majority of age groups.

Thus, for national statistical purposes, the PSS is a statistically robust and representative source of data about persons with disability or a long-term health condition and their experiences of violence. This data is fit for purpose for measuring and monitoring national victimisation rates over time for persons with disability.

However, it is acknowledged that the scope of the survey does not include all persons with disability. The survey is not administered to the estimated 201,100 adults with disability or a long-term health condition residing in cared accommodation, who comprise 1.1% of the adult population. Furthermore, data cannot be collected from the estimated 24,900 adult household residents with a communication disability who cannot be understood at all by someone they do not know, who comprise 0.1% of the adult population.¹

Persons residing in institutional settings are excluded from PSS coverage. This includes persons with disability living in hospitals, nursing homes, aged care hostels, and other cared accommodation.

Collecting information directly from persons with disability living in cared accommodation using private face-to-face interviews presents a number of challenges. It would require the cooperation and authorisation of accommodation administrators, as the information collected may have legal ramifications. Consent would also need to be sought from legal guardians and carers where relevant regarding the participation of persons they are responsible for, who may have reason to refuse to provide consent.

Furthermore, some respondents may be reluctant to disclose any incidents of violence, abuse, neglect, or exploitation that they have experienced within the cared accommodation facility, out of a fear for their safety or due to explicit threats and intimidation.

Respondents may also not be able to accurately recall and communicate their experiences. The 2015 SDAC found that the likelihood of a person with disability living in cared accommodation increased with age and disability severity.  The survey estimated that half of persons living in cared accommodation had dementia or Alzheimer’s disease, and the proportion of residents with cognitive impairment could be as high as three in four (74%).²

Given the concerns outlined above, using the PSS as a survey vehicle to collect information from persons with disability living in institutional settings about their experiences of violence, abuse, neglect, and exploitation is not considered a feasible or reliable data collection strategy at this stage.

The exclusion of persons with disability living in institutional settings from the coverage of the PSS does not impact on the overall national representativeness of persons with disability or a long-term health condition in the PSS sample.

A proxy is a person (guardian or carer) who answers survey questions when the person selected for the interview is incapable of answering for themselves. This includes persons with severe communication disability who are unable to communicate with the interviewer independently, and require a proxy to answer on behalf of them. However, sensitive questions about experiences of violence are not asked during proxy interviews. As such, a small number of persons with severe communication disability that prevents them from responding to survey questions themselves are excluded from the sensitive component of the survey.

Although some data can be collected via a proxy who answers on behalf of the respondent (e.g. another family member or carer), additional considerations need to be taken into account when asking questions of the proxy about sensitive topics such as violence.

Using a proxy to answer sensitive questions about experiences of violence on behalf of the respondent can compromise the quality and reliability of data. The proxy may not have accurate information about the respondent’s past and present experiences, or may have reasons not to disclose any incidents of violence, particularly if they are a perpetrator of violence towards the respondent. Given these concerns, proxy interviews are not an effective method of collecting reliable data about experiences of violence for persons with severe communication disabilities.

While there is a small underrepresentation of persons with a communication disability who are unable to communicate at all, this does not impact on the overall national representativeness of persons with disability in the PSS sample.