3101.0 - Australian Demographic Statistics, Jun 2010 
Quality Declaration
Quality Declaration ARCHIVED ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 21/12/2010
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FEATURE ARTICLE 2: AUSTRALIA'S RECENT TEMPORARY MIGRANTS—WHO, HOW, WHERE AND WHY Indications are that NOM peaked in 2009 and is now declining. Preliminary NOM estimates, not shown above but published in this issue of Australian Demographic Statistics, June quarter 2010 (cat. no. 3101.0) clearly record the decrease. Comparison of quarterly data, on a year to year basis, shows that for each quarter, commencing June quarter 2009, NOM is lower than for the same quarter of the previous year. This decrease in the net figure for overseas migration has been impacted by a decrease in arrivals but also by an increase in departures. While the estimates for 2009 are preliminary, they do provide an insight into the direction NOM estimates may take. It is important to note that the analysis in this article refers to the net contribution to population change of persons travelling on various temporary visas. The net contribution is the difference between NOM arrivals and NOM departures in a reference period for persons holding the specific visa at the time of arrival or departure. This is shown as the NOM figure throughout the article. The analysis is based on final NOM data from the ABS' analytical Travellers' Characteristics Data Base and covers the 2004 to 2008 calendar year period. An individual's actual true travel behaviour and associated characteristics are only available from final NOM data, as these can only be accurately recorded at the end of the 16 month reference period following a traveller's initial border crossing. Therefore, the temporary visa status is only able to be obtained from final NOM data from the Travellers' Characteristics Data Base. '12/16 month rule' methodology All data in this article are based on the '12/16 month rule' methodology for calculating NOM and are only available from December quarter 2003. Further information on the current methodology ('12/16 month rule') and the reasons for the change in method can be found under the Explanatory Notes tab, available with the electronic release of Migration, Australia, 2008-09 (cat. no. 3412.0) in the Technical Note -'12/16 month rule' Methodology for Calculating Net Overseas Migration from September quarter 2006 and onwards. NOM data based on the '12/16 month rule' methodology were not used in Australia's official population counts until September quarter 2006. The '12/16 month rule' includes in Estimated Resident Population (ERP) a traveller who is in Australia for a total of 12 months or more over a 16 month period, or conversely, excludes from ERP a traveller who is out of Australia for a total of 12 months or more over a 16 month period. Hence, NOM is the net gain or loss of population through immigration to Australia (NOM arrivals) and emigration from Australia (NOM departures) based on an international traveller's duration of stay being in or out of Australia for 12 months or more. For further information on NOM arrivals and NOM departures, see the Glossary attached to this publication. WHO - THE TEMPORARY VISA HOLDERS In 2008, the number of temporary visa holders arriving in Australia was 287,700 persons, representing 54% of all NOM arrivals. Five years earlier (2004), the number of temporary visa holders arriving was 155,300 persons, or 44% of all NOM arrivals. The number of temporary visa holders departing Australia in 2008 numbered 83,900 persons, or 38% of all NOM departures. In 2004, the number of temporary visa holders departing was 64,000 persons, or 30%. When temporary visa holders in 2004 and 2008 were compared, the excess of NOM arrivals on NOM departures was higher in 2008 than in 2004. However, proportionally the net contribution to NOM from temporary visa holders (NOM arrivals minus NOM departures) was similar at 65% for 2008 and 66% in 2004. The main growth over the five year period was in the number of temporary NOM arrivals where the increase represented 85%. While temporary NOM departures also increased, the increase was less, at 31%. Two major factors contributed to the disparity between NOM arrivals and NOM departures for those travelling on temporary visas. The first was the time lag between commencing and finishing courses undertaken by students. The second was that travellers can change their visa while onshore. This was relevant to most travellers but was particularly so for students, business long-stay (subclass 457) and working holiday visa holders.
Age and sex The age structure of temporary visa holders contributing to NOM is different to the age structure of non temporary visa holders. Temporary visa holders are those travelling on temporary entrant visas while non temporary visa holders include those travelling on permanent visas, New Zealand citizens, Australian citizens and 'other' persons travelling (e.g. non Australian citizens who are permanent residents and those on onshore and unknown visas). In 2008, temporary visa holders in the 15-34 years age group (younger workers and students) contributed 50% of total NOM, while the remaining persons in the age group (the non temporary visa holders) contributed an additional 16%. Temporary and non temporary visa holders aged 0-14 years showed a reverse variation, at 6% and 9% respectively, suggesting children accompanying family members. For the remaining temporary and non temporary visa holders (35 years and over) the proportions were at 8% and 11% respectively. The final data from 2008 showed there was a net of 112,600 male temporary visa holders contributing to Australia's population. In comparison, there was a smaller net of 91,300 female temporary visa holders. HOW - THE VISAS USED The vast majority of people entering and leaving Australia, travel using official documents, including passports and visas that have been approved by the Australian Government Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC). A breakdown of the major groups and visa types, which have contributed to NOM over the five year period ending December 2008, is shown in the following table. It provides an insight into the main groups which contributed to the recent increases experienced in Australia's NOM figures. During the five year period, temporary visa holders, contributing to NOM, rose by 123%, permanent visa holders by 34% and New Zealand citizens by 109%. Conversely, the negative net of -10,400 Australian citizens in 2008, had fallen by 66% from five years earlier. Overall, NOM more than doubled during this same period, increasing 127%. Final NOM data are currently only available from 2004 to 2008 and during this time temporary visa holders have always made a net contribution of over 50% of total NOM. However, the proportion has varied, ranging from a low of 55% in 2005 to a high of 67% in 2007. During this period, the group experiencing the largest decrease was the permanent visa group, falling from 49% in 2004 to 29% in 2008. New Zealand travellers maintained their contribution, around 12% to 14% over the five year period. Australian citizens continued to negatively influence NOM, although the negative influence decreased between 2004 and 2008; -22% in 2004 compared with -3% in 2008. Year to year growth in NOM has been strong with the highest yearly growth being between 2007 and 2008 (29%). Temporary visas growth, year to year, was mainly positive with the exception of the decline between 2004 and 2005. The highest yearly growth, in temporary visas, occurred between 2006 and 2007 (42%).
Those temporary visa holders in Australia who contribute to NOM may end up residing in any of the states and territories. When 2004 and 2008 were compared, all states and territories increased the net contribution of persons travelling on temporary visas, with the number of persons, for Australia, increasing from 91,200 in 2004 to 203,800 in 2008. New South Wales received the greatest growth numerically, doubling its representation; 33,200 persons in 2004 (36% of all NOM temporary visas) compared with 70,000 persons in 2008 (34% of all temporary visas). However, the Northern Territory increased its representation threefold; increasing from 470 persons in 2004 to 1,600 persons in 2008. Similarly, Western Australia's increase was almost threefold; increasing from 9,800 persons in 2004 to 28,400 persons in 2008. International student visas International student visas are composed of the vocational education and training sector, the higher education sector and other student visa groups. People travelling on international student visas were the major contributors to the temporary visa holders group for each year between 2004 and 2008 and the major contributor to increasing NOM, as seen in the following table. The highest proportion was recorded in 2004 (63%, or 57,800 students) and the lowest proportion in 2005 (50%, or 42,800 students). The comparative proportion for 2008 was 60% (121,700 students). The contribution to NOM, from international student visas, was 39% in 2008 compared with 42% in 2004. In 2008, within the student group, those travelling on higher education visas were the largest group, representing 31% (63,600 students) of all travellers on temporary visas and 20% of NOM. The vocational education and training sector represented 17% (35,600 students) of the temporary group and 11% of NOM. The other student group represented 11% (22,500 students) and 7% respectively. The net contribution of people using student visas increased substantially over the five year period ending December 2008. In 2008, there were 121,700 student visas used by travellers compared with 57,800 in 2004, an increase of 110%. The growth was in NOM arrivals where the increase represented 91%. While NOM departures also increased, the increase was less, 37%. The large difference between NOM arrivals and NOM departures for international students is, in part, the result of the time lag effect of a student's course duration. For example, a student arriving today will not necessarily become a NOM departure until the end of their course in two, three or four years' time.
However, the difference can also be due to a change of a student's circumstances at the end of their study time. For example, after completing studies, a student may apply for an onshore permanent residence visa or another visa such as a bridging or a temporary business long-stay (subclass 457) visa. Therefore, some students may change their visa and residency status whilst onshore. In these instances, the original student visa recorded with a traveller's NOM arrival has ceased and the traveller will now hold a new visa of a different category, or may have permanent residency status. Therefore, if and when the traveller departs Australia and remains away for 12 months or more out of the following 16 month period (by which means they are recorded as a NOM departure), their visa category will not be based on their initial student visa category. It is only at this stage that the NOM system will record the change of visa by a traveller either to an onshore or other type of visa. Care should be taken with student visas, when analysing the net figure (i.e. NOM) on its own, as with all other temporary visas such as business long-stay (subclass 457), working holiday makers and other long-term visas. Over the last 10 financial years, onshore permanent visas granted by DIAC have increased fourfold from close to 15,000 persons in 1998-99 to 63,400 in 2008-09(footnote 1) . In numeric terms, all states and territories recorded increased growth from the net contribution of persons travelling on international student visas, when 2004 and 2008 were compared. New South Wales recorded the highest number of international students, in both years; more than doubling its representation. Queensland recorded the largest substantial increase (121%, increasing from 7,600 persons in 2004 to 16,900 in 2008) followed by Victoria (118%, increasing from 19,000 in 2004 to 41,400 in 2008). For Australia, international student visas holders contributing to NOM increased 110%; up from 57,800 in 2004 to 121,700 in 2008. Business long-stay (subclass 457) visas In 2008, the net contribution of persons with business long-stay (subclass 457) visas was 37,600; 18% of all temporary visas and 12% of NOM. In 2004, the comparative number was 9,500; 10% of all temporary visa holders and 7% of NOM. The 2008 net contribution of business long-stay visa holders (37,600 persons) was comprised of 49,600 NOM arrivals and 11,900 NOM departures. Five years earlier the number of business long-stay visa holders (9,500) was comprised of 16,600 NOM arrivals and 7,100 NOM departures. Once again the lag between arrivals and departures and the possibility of onshore visa acquisition was evident, as just demonstrated for those arriving on student visas. Business 457 visa holders can stay in Australia for up to four years, and they too, like students, can apply for other visas during their stay. Financial year information published by DIAC shows that in the year 2008-09, 39,200 people who held a business 457 visa were granted a permanent residence visa. The majority of these (91%) were granted a permanent residence visa under the Employer Nomination Scheme, the Regional Sponsored Migration Scheme, a labour agreement or under the Skilled Independent visa program(footnote 2) . The strong representation of business 457 visas in NOM figures coincides with the buoyant economy in Australia over recent years. Despite the Global Financial Crisis, Australia has maintained relatively low unemployment and a recognised skill shortage for specific occupations. Business long-stay (subclass 457) visas granted by DIAC increased strongly between 2006-07 (87,300) and 2007-08 (110,600). However, between 2007-08 and 2008-09 the numbers granted by DIAC fell 8%; decreasing to 101,300 in 2008-09(footnote 3) . In numeric terms, the net contribution of persons travelling on business long-stay (subclass 457) visas increased almost fourfold for Australia, when 2004 and 2008 were compared. While New South Wales recorded the highest number of persons on business visas in 2004, it was only the third highest in 2008. Western Australia had the highest number of persons on business visas in 2008; 11,500 persons, up from 1,600 persons in 2004, over a sevenfold increase. Queensland recorded the second highest number of persons on business visas; 8,800 persons in 2008, up from 1,300 in 2004, nearly a sevenfold increase. Visitor (long-stay) visas In 2008, the net contribution of persons with visitor (long-stay) visas was 28,400; 14% of all temporary visas and 9% of NOM. In 2004, the comparative number was 19,500; 21% of all temporary visas and 14% of NOM. Visitor (long-stay) visas include tourists, business visitors, people travelling for medical treatment as well as others requiring a long-stay visit. The 2008 net contribution of visitor (long-stay) visa holders (28,400 persons) was comprised of 49,800 NOM arrivals and 21,400 NOM departures. Five years earlier, the net contribution of visitor (long-stay) visa holders (19,500 persons) was comprised of 38,900 NOM arrivals and 19,400 NOM departures. Of the visitor (long-stay) visas used by travellers over the five years ending December 2008, an average of 80% were issued to tourists, while a further average of 17% were issued to business visitors. With the exception of Tasmania, all states and territories increased the net contribution of persons on visitor (long-stay) visas, when 2004 and 2008 were compared. The largest movement was for Western Australia which was the only state or territory to more than double; increasing from 1,700 persons in 2004 to 4,100 persons in 2008. While Tasmania's visitor numbers were small and remained positive, its representation decreased when 2004 and 2008 were compared; falling from 140 persons in 2004 to 90 persons in 2008. Working holiday visas In 2008, the net contribution of persons with working holiday visas was 23,100; 11% of all temporary visas and 7% of NOM. In 2004, working holiday visas numbered 8,900; 10% of all temporary visas and 6% of NOM. The net contribution of working holiday visa holders (23,100 persons) in 2008 was comprised of 32,500 NOM arrivals and 9,300 NOM departures. The comparative figures, for 2004, were a net contribution of 8,900 persons on working holiday visas, comprised of 12,200 NOM arrivals and 3,200 NOM departures. Australia's strong economic standing during recent international financial events, and relatively low unemployment rates over the last few years have increased the appeal for international travellers to visit and work temporarily in Australia. Working holiday makers are permitted to stay for a period of up to 12 months from the date of initial entry to Australia. However, the fact that many working holiday makers stay more than 12 months and therefore contribute to NOM estimates can be, in part, the result of those working holiday visa holders who have undertaken seasonal work (e.g. in regional Australia or tourist destinations) being eligible to apply for a second working holiday visa. For example, there were 21,700 second working holiday visas granted by DIAC in 2008-09(footnote 4) . It can also be that those who have arrived on a working holiday visa may have applied for, and been granted, a different visa whilst onshore. When 2004 and 2008 were compared, the net contribution of persons travelling on working holiday visas increased in numeric terms for all states and territories. Queensland recorded the largest increase; increasing from 1,300 person in 2004 to 5,200 in 2008, nearly a fourfold increase. Although the numbers were small, the Northern Territory also recorded close to a fourfold increase in travellers on working holiday visas. The other significant gain was for Western Australia; increasing from 960 persons in 2004 to 3,300 in 2008. WHERE - COUNTRIES OF BIRTH OF TRAVELLERS Between 2004 and 2008, the source countries of birth of travellers contributing to NOM numbered over 200 countries. For those who contributed to temporary NOM in 2008, the top 10 countries of birth (based on 2008) contributed 72%. For the temporary visa group, people born in India, recorded the highest proportionate input to temporary NOM for the period 2006 to 2008, increasing from 17% to 23%. India replaced China, which was the highest contributor in 2004 and 2005. India-born travellers with temporary visas contributed 15% to total NOM in 2008 while travellers from China contributed 9%. In 2008, there were 56 times more NOM arrivals than NOM departures for temporary visa holders who were Nepal-born travellers. In part, this may be due to the relatively small number of Nepal-born arriving in earlier years, especially prior to 2007; NOM arrivals increased around 260% between 2006 and 2007 while NOM departures remained relatively stable over the five year period. Additionally, it should be kept in mind that visa status can change while onshore. For South Africa-born travellers there were 14 times more NOM arrivals than NOM departures for temporary visa holders, and there were 11 times more India-born NOM arrivals than NOM departures.
While NOM arrivals exceeded NOM departures for all top 10 countries, the magnitude in the disparity for each of the countries varied greatly. For example, for South Korea-born, there were just over twice as many NOM arrivals as NOM departures. However, at the other extreme were Nepal-born, with 56 times more. Top 10 countries and temporary visas used
While New Zealand citizens were an important component of NOM (12%), they were not in the top 10 countries of birth for temporary visa holders. Since the introduction of the Trans-Tasman travel agreement in 1973, New Zealand citizens are free to visit, live and work in Australia at any time. New Zealand citizens are not required to apply for a visa before entering Australia. They need only a valid New Zealand passport and are issued with a specific New Zealand citizen visa (Special Category Visa) at the Australian border. For all temporary NOM travellers in 2008, 60% travelled on international student visas. India-born students contributed 20% of all visa holders contributing to temporary NOM, followed by China-born students (13%) and Nepal-born students (4%). The second visa group, business long-stay (subclass 457) accounted for 18% of all temporary visa holders. South Africa-born (4%) recorded the highest proportion of travellers in this group, followed by Philippines-born and the United Kingdom-born (each 3%). Travellers from different countries were more likely to utilise specific visa types to travel as seen in the following table showing temporary visas by visa type and the proportion for each country of birth. In 2008, just over 88% of all India-born travellers on temporary entry visas were students, with 60% being higher education sector students. For Nepal-born, 98% travelled on student visas with vocational education and training sector visas accounting for 78% of the travellers.
Student visas were not always the main visa for each of the top 10 countries. Around 83% of Philippines-born and 78% of South Africa-born travelled on business long-stay (subclass 457) visas. For Ireland-born, 91% travelled on working holiday visas, while 52% of South Korea-born also travelled on working holiday visas. For the United Kingdom-born, the travellers were more evenly spread across business long-stay (subclass 457) (36%), working holiday (33%), and visitor (30%) visas. The following table shows temporary visas by country of birth and proportion for each visa type. For the main temporary visa type, those travelling on international student visas, 34% were India-born and 22% were China-born. For travellers on business long-stay (subclass 457) visas, the main country of birth was South Africa (19%), followed by Philippines-born (18%) and the United Kingdom-born (17%). The visitor group was led by the United Kingdom-born (19%) while the main countries of birth for people travelling on working holiday visas were the United Kingdom (26%), Ireland (21%) and South Korea (20%).
Country of birth, median age and sex ratio The median age of people on temporary visas, while in Australia, was 25.8 years for males and 26.0 years for females in 2008. Of the top 10 countries of birth for temporary visa holders, males (22.8 years) and females (23.1 years) born in China recorded the youngest median ages. China had a high proportion of students amongst its travellers. The highest median ages were recorded by Philippines-born, 34.3 years for males and 31.0 years for females. People born in the Philippines travelled mainly on business long-stay (subclass 457) visas indicating they were in Australia as employer sponsored skilled workers. More men than women travelled on temporary entrant visas in 2008. The sex ratio (the number of males per 100 females) was 123 males for every 100 females. For the top 10 countries of birth, contributing to NOM, there was considerable variation in the sex ratios. The country that made the highest contribution to NOM, via temporary visas, also recorded the highest sex ratio. India-born (mainly travelling on student visas) had a sex ratio of 208 males per 100 females, far higher than the sex ratio recorded by all temporary visa holders (123). Ireland-born (175 males per 100 females) mainly travelling on working holiday visas and Nepal-born (174), mainly travelling on student visas, also recorded high sex ratios. Not all of the top 10 countries, contributing to NOM via temporary visas, recorded more male than female travellers in 2008. For China-born, the sex ratio was 83 males per 100 females, while for Vietnam-born, the sex ratio was 88 males. Travellers from these two countries were mainly travelling on student visas. WHY - MAIN REASON FOR TRAVEL The reasons people travel to and from Australia are many and varied. They are also self-reported on the Australian incoming and outgoing passenger cards for all temporary movements. Reason data are based on the traveller's intention at the time of arrival to, or departure from, Australia. Travellers, can and may change their reason for journey while onshore or offshore. These changes are not recorded in this analysis. The data presented in this section are based on NOM arrivals data only. Reason for journey information for permanent migration and return movements is not available from the passenger card. The main intended reason for journey given by all NOM arrivals, travelling on temporary visas, was education at 45%. The other main reasons were holiday (15%) business (11%) and employment (10%). The main stated reason for journey is usually aligned to the visa issued to the traveller, but this is not always the case. It should be kept in mind that while the visa is an official document, issued by DIAC, travellers are free to insert any reason on the incoming passenger card. The following table shows the relationship between travel visa and stated reason for journey for temporary NOM arrivals in 2008.
SUMMARY With the introduction of the Travellers' Characteristics Data Base, the ABS has been able to investigate information about the travellers who contribute to NOM as they cross Australia's borders. The investigations have been very revealing regarding the numbers contributing to NOM, their characteristics and, in particular, the effect that temporary migration has made on the increasing Australian population. Based on the new '12/16 month rule' methodology, it has been established that NOM increased by 127% over the five years ending December 2008; increasing from a net of 138,800 persons in 2004 to 315,700 persons in 2008. Temporary NOM (the net contribution of persons travelling on temporary visas) was the key contributor. It represented 65% of total NOM in 2008, very similar to the proportion in 2004 (66%). When temporary visa holders in 2004 and 2008 were compared, the excess of NOM arrivals on NOM departures was higher in 2008 than in 2004. In 2008, the number of temporary visa holders arriving in Australia was 287,700 persons, representing 54% of all NOM arrivals. Five years earlier (2004), the number of temporary visa holders arriving was 155,300 persons, or 44% of all NOM arrivals. The number of temporary visa holders departing Australia in 2008 numbered 83,900 persons, or 38% of all NOM departures. In 2004, the number of temporary visa holders departing was 64,000 persons, or 30%. The main growth over the five year period was in the number of temporary NOM arrivals where the increase represented 85%. While temporary NOM departures also increased, the increase was less, at 31%. Two major factors contributed to the disparity between NOM arrivals and NOM departures for those travelling on temporary visas. The first was the time lag between commencing and finishing courses undertaken by students. The second was that travellers can change their visa while onshore. This was relevant to most travellers but was particularly so for students, business long-stay (subclass 457) and working holiday visa holders. The vast majority of temporary migrants were those with student visas. In 2008, 60% of all temporary visa holders and 39% of total NOM travellers were issued student visas to cross Australia's borders. The other main visa categories, as a proportion of the temporary visa group, were business long-stay (subclass 457) (18%), visitor (long-stay) visas (14%) and working holiday visas (11%). A negative contribution (-3%) to NOM, via temporary visas, was made by the other visa category. In numeric terms, over the five years ending December 2008, the net contribution of persons travelling on business long-stay (subclass 457) visas increased fourfold (from 9,500 in 2004 to 37,600 in 2008) while the net contribution for working holiday visas increased 2.6 times and student visas more than doubled. When 2004 and 2008 were compared, all states and territories gained population from NOM temporary visa holders. New South Wales received the greatest growth numerically, doubling its representation; 33,200 persons in 2004 (36% of all NOM temporary visas) compared with 70,000 persons in 2008 (34% of all NOM temporary visas). However, the Northern Territory increased its representation threefold; increasing from 470 persons in 2004 to 1,600 persons in 2008. Similarly, Western Australia's increase was almost threefold; increasing from 9,800 persons in 2004 to 28,400 persons in 2008. The countries of birth of people contributing to NOM were varied, numbering over 200 in the years 2004 to 2008. Of the top 10 countries for people travelling on temporary visas in 2008, the main contributors were: India, China, and the United Kingdom. All top 10 countries, except Malaysia (which decreased by less than 100 travellers) increased their contribution to NOM when 2004 and 2008 were compared. However, the main visas they travelled under and their characteristics varied. Examples include:
Discussion will continue on whether temporary migration will, in coming years, continue to make a large positive contribution to NOM, and hence the Australian population. International migration is a volatile phenomenon influenced by a wide range of demographic, social, economic and political determinants and consequences at the global, regional and national levels. The Australian Government has long-standing formal migration programs which are managed by DIAC. These programs change over time, as do the 'pull' and 'push' factors for migrants throughout the world. International events such as the Global Financial Crisis, the changing value of the Australian dollar and skill shortages also play a part, especially in terms of Australian competitiveness for attracting international students and the availability of employment opportunities. Additionally, with government reforms to the granting of some onshore and permanent residence visas, which may cease the opportunity for some temporary migrants to extend their stay in Australia, many temporary migrants are likely to leave Australia's shores as their temporary visas expire, thus boosting NOM departures. Therefore, the large numbers of temporary visa holders who have arrived in recent years may soon start to translate into large numbers of temporary visa holders departing Australia. In recent years, Australia has seen substantial growth of temporary migration. These temporary visa holders are temporarily added to Australia's population, until their final departure, when they are then removed from official population counts. The flows of temporary migrants into, and later out of, Australia's population, contribute to the peaks and troughs experienced in NOM and therefore, the volatility experienced in population growth over recent years. It is hoped the analysis of these temporary migrants undertaken here provides an insight into the characteristics and differences between various groups and is a foundation for future analysis and research. 1 DIAC 2010, Population Flows: Immigration aspects 2008–09 edition, Ch 2 p 45. <back 2 DIAC 2010, Population Flows: Immigration aspects 2008–09 edition, Ch 3 p 64. <back 3 DIAC 2010, Population Flows: Immigration aspects 2008–09 edition, Ch 3 p 64. <back 4 DIAC 2010, Population Flows: Immigration aspects 2008–09 edition, Ch 3 p 58. <back Document Selection These documents will be presented in a new window.
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